PHENOL (BENZENOL)
Phenol (Benzenol), with the molecular formula C₆H₅OH, is a white crystalline solid that is mildly acidic and highly reactive, used primarily in the production of plastics, resins, and synthetic fibers.
Phenol (Benzenol) is both a historical antiseptic and a key industrial chemical, essential for synthesizing materials such as polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, and various pharmaceuticals.
Phenol (Benzenol) is corrosive and toxic, capable of causing severe burns and systemic toxicity upon exposure, making careful handling and storage crucial.
CAS Number: 108-95-2
EC Number: 203-632-7
Molecular Formula: C6H5OH or C6H6O
Molecular Weight: 94.11
Synonyms: phenol, 108-95-2, carbolic acid, Hydroxybenzene, Phenic acid, Oxybenzene, Phenylic acid, Phenylic alcohol, Benzenol, Monophenol, Phenyl hydrate, Phenyl hydroxide, PhOH, Monohydroxybenzene, Phenyl alcohol, Paoscle, Phenole, Izal, Phenol alcohol, Phenol, liquefied, Acide carbolique, Phenosmolin, Fenolo, Phenol homopolymer, Benzene, hydroxy-, Carbolsaure, Fenosmolin, Fenosmoline, Fenol, Liquid phenol, Carbolic oil, Liquefied phenol, Phenol, pure, Fenolo [Italian], Phenole [German], Rcra waste number U188, Campho-Phenique Gel, Phenol [JAN], Phenic, Carbolsaure [German], Campho-Phenique Liquid, NCI-C50124, Liquified Phenol, Phenol, molten, Baker’s P & S liquid & Ointment, Carbolicum acidum, Fenol [Dutch, Polish], Baker’s P and S Liquid and Ointment, Monohydroxy benzene, Phenol, sulfurated, Un 2812 (solution), UN 2312 (molten), Acide carbolique [French], UN 1671 (solid), NSC 36808, Campho-Phenique Cold Sore Gel, Anbesol, Phenic alcohol, Synthetic phenol, 2-allphenol, Phenol, dimer, RCRA waste no. 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Ph. Eur., 99.0-100.5%, p-Hydroxy polystyrene (100-200 mesh, 0.5-1.5 mmol/g)@CRLFMFCD03703209, Phenol solution, 100 mug/mL in acetonitrile, PESTANAL(R), analytical standard, Phenol, contains hypophosphorous as stabilizer, loose crystals, ACS reagent, >=99.0%, Phenol, puriss., meets analytical specification of Ph. Eur., BP, USP, 99.5-100.5% (GC), Phenol solution, BioReagent, Equilibrated with 10??mM Tris HCl, pH??8.0, 1??mM EDTA, for molecular biology, Phenol solution, BioReagent, Saturated with 0.1 M citrate buffer, pH??4.3 +/- 0.2, for molecular biology, Phenol, polymer-bound, 100-200 mesh, extent of labeling: 0.5-1.5 mmol/g loading, 1 % cross-linked with divinylbenzene, Phenol, puriss., meets analytical specification of Ph. Eur., BP, USP, >=99.5% (GC), crystalline (detached)
Phenol (Benzenol) is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a white crystalline solid that is volatile.
The molecule consists of a phenyl group (−C6H5) bonded to a hydroxy group (−OH).
Mildly acidic, Phenol (Benzenol) requires careful handling because Phenol (Benzenol) can cause chemical burns.
Phenol (Benzenol) was first extracted from coal tar, but today is produced on a large scale (about 7 million tonnes a year) from petroleum-derived feedstocks.
Phenol (Benzenol) is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and useful compounds.
Phenol (Benzenol) is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials.
Phenol (Benzenol) and its chemical derivatives are essential for production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides, and numerous pharmaceutical drugs.
Phenol (Benzenol) consists of a hydroxyl group and a phenyl group attached to each other.
Phenol (Benzenol) considerably dissolves in water.
Earlier Phenol (Benzenol) was used as carbolic soap.
Phenol (Benzenol) is mildly acidic and is corrosive to the respiratory tract, eyes, and skin.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a crystalline solid white in colour and needs to be handled with care as it can cause chemical burns.
Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered Phenol (Benzenol) in the year 1834.
Phenol (Benzenol) was extracted from coal tar.
Phenol (Benzenol) is also known as phenolic acid.
If a compound is consisting of a six-membered aromatic ring and bonded to a hydroxyl group directly, then it can be referred to as Phenol (Benzenol).
Carbolic acid (commonly known as phenol) is an aromatic chemical molecule with the molecular formula C6H5OH and the molecular formula C6H5OH.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a flammable white crystalline substance.
Phenol (Benzenol) is the simplest member of the phenol family of organic compounds.
Phenols (Benzenol) are sometimes known as carbolic acids because of their extreme acidity.
Because of resonance, the Phenol (Benzenol) molecule has a partial positive charge on the oxygen atom, and the anion created by the loss of a hydrogen ion is similarly resonance stabilised.
Phenol (Benzenol) is hydroxybenzene by definition.
Phenol (Benzenol) is known by the name phenol.
The IUPAC name for it would be Phenol (Benzenol), which was derived similarly to the IUPAC names for aliphatic alcohols
Phenol (Benzenol) is a part of industrial paint strippers used for the removal of epoxy, polyurethane, and other chemically resistant coatings in the aviation industry.
Phenol (Benzenol) derivatives can be used in cosmetics preparation, including sunscreens, hair colouring, skin lightening preparations, and skin toners/exfoliators.
Phenol (Benzenol) can be considered a weak acid.
Phenol (Benzenol) is in equilibrium with the phenolate anion C6H5O− (also called phenoxide) in aqueous solutions that are within the pH range 5-6.
One reason, for why Phenol (Benzenol) is more acidic than aliphatic compounds, is that it contains an OH group and the aromatic ring resonance stabilizes the phenoxide anion.
Phenol (Benzenol) is an organic compound which is considerably soluble in water, dissolving about 84.2 g in 1000 mL (to form a 0.895 M solution).
Homogenous Phenol (Benzenol)-water mixtures at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible.
The Phenol (Benzenol) sodium salt, sodium phenoxide, is much more soluble in water.
Phenol (Benzenol) is also known as carbolic acid.
Phenol (Benzenol) is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH.
Phenol (Benzenol) consists of a hydroxyl group and a phenyl group attached to each other.
In addition, Phenol (Benzenol) considerably dissolves in water.
Earlier Phenol (Benzenol) was used as carbolic soap.
Phenol (Benzenol) is mildly acidic and is corrosive to the respiratory tract, eyes, and skin.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a crystalline solid white in colour and needs to be handled with care as it can cause chemical burns.
Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered Phenol (Benzenol) in the year 1834.
PPhenol (Benzenol) was extracted from coal tar.
Moreover, Phenol (Benzenol) is also known as phenolic acid.
If a compound is consisting of a six-membered aromatic ring and bonded to a hydroxyl group directly, then it can be referred to as Phenol (Benzenol).
Phenol (Benzenol) is a colorless to light-pink, crystalline solid with a sweet, acrid odor.
Exposure to Phenol (Benzenol) may cause irritation to the skin, eyes, nose, throat, and nervous system.
Some symptoms of exposure to Phenols (Benzenol) are weight loss, weakness, exhaustion, muscle aches, and pain.
Severe exposure can cause liver and/or kidney damage, skin burns, tremor, convulsions, and twitching.
Workers may be harmed from exposure to Phenol (Benzenol).
The level of harm depends upon the dose, duration, and work being done.
Phenol (Benzenol) is an antiseptic and disinfectant.
Furthermore, Phenol (Benzenol) is active against a wide range of micro-organisms including some fungi and viruses, but is only slowly effective against spores.
Phenol (Benzenol) has been used to disinfect skin and to relieve itching.
Phenol (Benzenol) is also used as an oral analgesic or anesthetic in products such as Chloraseptic to treat pharyngitis.
Additionally, Phenol (Benzenol) and its related compounds are used in surgical ingrown toenail treatment, a process termed phenolization.
Research indicates that parental exposure to Phenol (Benzenol) and its related compounds are positively associated with spontaneous abortion.
During the second world war, Phenol (Benzenol) injections were used as a means of execution by the Nazis.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a toxic compound whose vapours are corrosive to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
More to that, Phenol (Benzenol) is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a white crystalline solid that is volatile.
The molecule consists of a phenyl group (−C6H5) bonded to a hydroxy group (−OH).
Mildly acidic, Phenol (Benzenol) requires careful handling because it can cause chemical burns.
Phenol (Benzenol) is an organic compound appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL (0.895 M).
Homogeneous mixtures of Phenol (Benzenol) and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible.
The sodium salt of Phenol (Benzenol), sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble.
In carbon tetrachloride and alkane solvents Phenol (Benzenol) hydrogen bonds with a wide range of Lewis bases such as pyridine, diethyl ether, and diethyl sulfide.
The enthalpies of adduct formation and the −OH IR frequency shifts accompanying adduct formation have been studied.
Phenol (Benzenol) is classified as a hard acid which is compatible with the C/E ratio of the ECW model with EA = 2.27 and CA = 1.07.
The relative acceptor strength of Phenol (Benzenol) toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a strong nucleophile with a nucleophilicity comparable to the one of carbanions or tertiary amines.
Phenol (Benzenol) can react at both its oxygen or carbon sites as an ambident nucleophile.
Generally, oxygen attack of Phenol (Benzenol) is kinetically favored, while carbon-attack is thermodynamically preferred.
Mixed oxygen/carbon attack and by this a loss of selectivity is usually observed if the reaction rate reaches diffusion control.
Phenol (Benzenol) exhibits keto-enol tautomerism with its unstable keto tautomer cyclohexadienone, but only a tiny fraction of phenol exists as the keto form.
The equilibrium constant for enolisation is approximately 10−13, which means only one in every ten trillion molecules is in the keto form at any moment.
The small amount of stabilisation gained by exchanging a C=C bond for a C=O bond is more than offset by the large destabilisation resulting from the loss of aromaticity.
Phenol (Benzenol) therefore exists essentially entirely in the enol form.
4,4′ Substituted cyclohexadienone can undergo a dienone–phenol rearrangement in acid conditions and form stable 3,4‐disubstituted Phenol (Benzenol).
Phenoxides are enolates stabilised by aromaticity.
Under normal circumstances, phenoxide is more reactive at the oxygen position, but the oxygen position is a “hard” nucleophile whereas the alpha-carbon positions tend to be “soft”.
Phenol (Benzenol) is highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution.
The enhance nucleophilicity is attributed to donation pi electron density from O into the ring.
Many groups can be attached to the ring, via halogenation, acylation, sulfonation, and related processes.
Phenol (Benzenol)’s ring is so strongly activated that bromination and chlorination lead readily to polysubstitution.
Further to that, Phenol (Benzenol) reacts with dilute nitric acid at room temperature to give a mixture of 2-nitrophenol and 4-nitrophenol while with concentrated nitric acid, additional nitro groups are introduced, e.g. to give 2,4,6-trinitrophenol.
Phenol (Benzenol) is both a manufactured chemical and a natural substance.
In addition, Phenol is a colorless-to-white solid when pure.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a liquid.
Phenol (Benzenol) has a distinct odor that is sickeningly sweet and tarry.
You can taste and smell Phenol (Benzenol) at levels lower than those that are associated with harmful effects.
Phenol (Benzenol) evaporates more slowly than water, and a moderate amount can form a solution with water.
Moreover, Phenol (Benzenol) is used primarily in the production of phenolic resins and in the manufacture of nylon and other synthetic fibers.
Phenol (Benzenol) is also used in slimicides (chemicals that kill bacteria and fungi in slimes), as a disinfectant and antiseptic, and in medicinal preparations such as mouthwash and sore throat lozenges.
Phenol (Benzenol) may be lethal by skin absorption.
Furthermore, Phenol does not react with water.
Phenol (Benzenol) is stable in normal transportation.
Phenol (Benzenol) is reactive with various chemicals and may be corrosive to lead, aluminum and its alloys, certain plastics, and rubber.
Freezing point of Phenol (Benzenol) is about 105 °F.
Density of Phenol (Benzenol) is 8.9 lb / gal.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used to make plastics, adhesives and other chemicals.
Phenol (Benzenol) is hydroxybenzene; Carbolic Acid.
More to that, Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a germicidal agent and as an intermediate in chemical synthesis.
Phenol (Benzenol) is highly toxic; corrosive to the skin.
Phenol (Benzenol) causes local and systemic toxic effects upon entering the body via ingestion, skin absorption (of any phase) or inhalation.
Locally, phenol may result in irritation of the nose, throat and eyes, and skin burns.
Acute poisoning causes an increased respiration rate, followed by a decreased respiration rate, decreased body temperature, cyanosis, muscular weakness, weak or occasionally rapid pulse and coma.
Death is usually the result of respiratory failure.
Chronic exposure to Phenol (Benzenol) is typified by systemic problems.
These include vertigo, digestive difficulties, skin eruptions, nervous problems and headaches.
Death may occur when liver or kidney problems become severe.
Uses of Phenol (Benzenol):
The major uses of Phenol (Benzenol), consuming two thirds of its production, involve its conversion to precursors for plastics.
Condensation with acetone gives bisphenol-A, a key precursor to polycarbonates and epoxide resins.
Condensation of Phenol (Benzenol), alkylphenols, or diphenols with formaldehyde gives phenolic resins, a famous example of which is Bakelite.
Partial hydrogenation of phenol gives cyclohexanone, a precursor to nylon.
Nonionic detergents are produced by alkylation of Phenol (Benzenol) to give the alkylphenols, e.g., nonylphenol, which are then subjected to ethoxylation.
Phenol (Benzenol) is also a versatile precursor to a large collection of drugs, most notably aspirin but also many herbicides and pharmaceutical drugs.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a component in liquid–liquid phenol–chloroform extraction technique used in molecular biology for obtaining nucleic acids from tissues or cell culture samples.
Depending on the pH of the solution either DNA or RNA can be extracted.
Medical:
Phenol (Benzenol) was widely used as an antiseptic.
Phenol (Benzenol)s use was pioneered by Joseph Lister
From the early 1900s to the 1970s Phenol (Benzenol) was used in the production of carbolic soap.
Concentrated Phenol (Benzenol) liquids are used for permanent treatment of ingrown toe and finger nails, a procedure known as a chemical matrixectomy.
The procedure was first described by Otto Boll in 1945.
Since that time Phenol (Benzenol) has become the chemical of choice for chemical matrixectomies performed by podiatrists.
Concentrated liquid Phenol (Benzenol) can be used topically as a local anesthetic for otology procedures, such as myringotomy and tympanotomy tube placement, as an alternative to general anesthesia or other local anesthetics.
Phenol (Benzenol) also has hemostatic and antiseptic qualities that make it ideal for this use.
Phenol (Benzenol) spray, usually at 1.4% phenol as an active ingredient, is used medically to treat sore throat.
Phenol (Benzenol) is the active ingredient in some oral analgesics such as Chloraseptic spray, TCP and Carmex.
Niche uses:
Phenol (Benzenol) is so inexpensive that it also attracts many small-scale uses.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a component of industrial paint strippers used in the aviation industry for the removal of epoxy, polyurethane and other chemically resistant coatings.
Due to safety concerns, phenol is banned from use in cosmetic products in the European Union and Canada.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a precursor in drugs
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as an antiseptic
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of nylon
Phenol (Benzenol) is used to preserve vaccines
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in oral analgesics
Derivatives of Phenols (Benzenol) are used in beauty products like hair colour and sunscreen
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the synthesis of plastics
Phenol (Benzenol) is used to produce detergents and carbonates
Applications of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenol (Benzenol) is extensively used in the production of phenolic resins, which find applications in plastics, adhesives, and coatings.
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a key building block for the synthesis of various pharmaceutical compounds, including analgesics and antiseptics.
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the production of synthetic fibers like nylon and rayon, enhancing their strength and flame resistance.
In the electrical and electronics industry, phenolic resins derived from Phenols (Benzenol) are used as insulation materials in electrical equipment and circuit boards.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed in the manufacturing of brake and clutch components in the automotive industry due to its heat resistance and mechanical strength.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a chain regulator in the production of synthetic rubber, improving its mechanical properties and stability.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of bisphenol-A (BPA), which is a key ingredient in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins.
In the textile industry, Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of resins and finishes that enhance the properties of textiles, such as strength and durability.
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the production of photographic chemicals, including developers, fixers, and toners.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the formulation of wood adhesives and finishes, improving the bonding strength and moisture resistance of wood products.
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a precursor for the production of caprolactam, a key ingredient in the manufacturing of nylon.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of flame retardants used in various industries to enhance the fire resistance of materials.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a denaturing agent in laboratory protocols to render certain substances unfit for consumption.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed in the production of resins and composites used in laminates, molded products, coatings, and casting compounds.
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the production of herbicides and plant growth regulators in agriculture.
Phenol (Benzenol) can be used as a preservative in cosmetic and personal care products to extend their shelf life.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of dyes and pigments for various industries, including textiles and printing.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed in the manufacturing of sealants and caulks, providing adhesive properties and resistance to moisture and weathering.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of disinfectants and antiseptics, helping to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a raw material for the production of epoxy resins, which are widely used in adhesives, coatings, and structural materials.
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the formulation of perfumes and fragrances, adding distinct scents and fixative properties to the final products.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of heat transfer fluids used in various industries, including HVAC systems and thermal management.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in waste treatment processes to neutralize or remove pollutants from wastewater and industrial effluents.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed as a reagent in analytical chemistry techniques for various types of analyses and measurements.
Phenol (Benzenol) can be utilized in the production of specialty chemicals, such as antioxidants, plasticizers, and surfactants, catering to specific industrial needs.
These sentences highlight the diverse range of applications that Phenol (Benzenol) finds in numerous industries and sectors.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of epoxy resins, which are widely utilized as a versatile adhesive and protective coating in construction, aerospace, and marine industries.
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a key ingredient in the manufacturing of polyurethane foams and elastomers, providing insulation and cushioning properties.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of synthetic detergents, contributing to their cleansing and emulsifying capabilities.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of phenolic foam insulation materials, which provide excellent thermal insulation properties in buildings and industrial applications.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed in the production of carbon black, a pigment used in printing inks, coatings, and rubber products.
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the synthesis of resorcinol, a compound used in the production of adhesives, flame retardants, and pharmaceuticals.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the formulation of hair dyes and colorants, providing long-lasting color and coverage.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed as a stabilizer and antioxidant in the rubber and polymer industries to prevent degradation and extend product lifespan.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of disinfectant sprays and wipes, playing a crucial role in maintaining cleanliness and hygiene.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a precursor for the synthesis of salicylic acid, which is a key ingredient in various pharmaceuticals and skincare products.
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the production of pharmaceutical intermediates, such as aspirin and antipyretic drugs.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of synthetic tanning agents used in the leather industry to improve the durability and quality of leather goods.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of petroleum additives, such as octane enhancers and lubricant additives.
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a reagent in the production of phenolphthalein, which is commonly used as a pH indicator in laboratories.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of polymeric flocculants used in wastewater treatment to facilitate solid-liquid separation.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed in the synthesis of resins used in dental materials, such as dental composites and adhesives.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a stabilizer and preservative in the food industry, particularly in the production of beverages, sauces, and processed foods.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of antioxidants for food products, preventing oxidation and extending shelf life.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of inkjet inks, providing color stability and adhesion properties.
Phenol (Benzenol) is employed in the production of herbicide formulations, helping to control unwanted plant growth in agriculture and landscaping.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of synthetic lubricants and greases, offering enhanced performance and stability.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the synthesis of bisphenol-F, which is a key ingredient in the production of epoxy resins with improved heat and chemical resistance.
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a starting material for the synthesis of phenolic antioxidants used in rubber, plastics, and lubricants to prevent degradation from heat and oxidation.
Phenol (Benzenol) finds application in the production of resin-coated proppants used in hydraulic fracturing to enhance oil and gas recovery in the petroleum industry.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites, providing strength and lightweight properties for applications in aerospace, automotive, and sporting goods industries.
Phenol (Benzenol) has a wide range of applications across various industries.
Here are some of Phenol (Benzenol)’s common applications:
Production of Plastics:
Phenol (Benzenol) is a key raw material for the production of phenolic resins, which are widely used in the manufacturing of plastics, such as bakelite and phenolic molding compounds.
Chemical Intermediates:
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as an important intermediate in the synthesis of various chemicals, including pharmaceuticals, herbicides, dyes, and explosives.
Disinfectants and Antiseptics:
Phenol (Benzenol)’s antimicrobial properties make it suitable for use as a disinfectant and antiseptic.
Phenol (Benzenol) can be found in products like throat sprays, mouthwashes, and topical antiseptic solutions.
Adhesives and Coatings:
Phenolic resins derived from Phenols (Benzenol) are used as binders in adhesives, coatings, and laminates due to their excellent bonding and heat-resistant properties.
Wood Preservation:
Phenol (Benzenol)-based wood preservatives, such as creosote, are used to protect wood from decay, insect infestation, and fungal growth in applications like railroad ties, utility poles, and outdoor timber.
Pharmaceutical Industry:
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as a starting material in the synthesis of various pharmaceutical compounds, including analgesics, antiseptics, and antipyretics.
Fragrances and Perfumes:
Phenol (Benzenol) derivatives are employed in the production of fragrances and perfumes to enhance the scent and fixative properties of the final product.
Polymer Industry:
Phenol (Benzenol) is utilized in the production of epoxy resins, polycarbonates, polyurethanes, and polyester resins, contributing to the manufacturing of a wide range of products, including coatings, adhesives, foams, and insulation materials.
Agriculture:
Phenol (Benzenol) is used as an intermediate in the production of herbicides and plant growth regulators for agricultural purposes.
Chemical Laboratories:
Phenol (Benzenol) finds applications in chemical laboratories as a reagent in various organic synthesis reactions, as well as a denaturing agent.
Textile Industry:
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of synthetic fibers like nylon and rayon.
Phenol (Benzenol) helps in the manufacturing of resins and finishes that enhance the strength, durability, and flame resistance of textiles.
Electrical and Electronics:
Phenolic resins derived from Phenols (Benzenol) are widely used in the electrical and electronics industry.
They are used as insulation materials in electrical equipment, circuit boards, switches, and connectors due to their excellent electrical properties and heat resistance.
Automotive Industry:
Phenolic resins are utilized in the manufacturing of brake and clutch components, gaskets, and seals due to their heat resistance, mechanical strength, and friction properties.
Rubber Industry:
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of synthetic rubber, where it acts as a chain regulator during the polymerization process, improving the mechanical properties and stability of the rubber.
Chemical Manufacturing:
Phenol (Benzenol) serves as a reagent and intermediate in various chemical synthesis reactions.
Phenol (Benzenol) is used to produce compounds like bisphenol-A (BPA), caprolactam, salicylic acid, phenolphthalein, and others.
Photographic Industry:
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the production of photographic chemicals, including developers, fixers, and toners.
Cosmetics and Personal Care Products:
Small amounts of Phenol (Benzenol) and its derivatives are used in cosmetics and personal care products, such as lotions, creams, and hair dyes, as preservatives and fragrance ingredients.
Resins and Composites:
Phenol (Benzenol) is used in the manufacturing of resins and composites for various applications, including laminates, molded products, coatings, and casting compounds.
Analytical Chemistry:
Phenol (Benzenol) can be employed as a standard or reference material in analytical chemistry techniques, such as spectrophotometry or chromatography.
Waste Treatment:
Phenol (Benzenol) can be utilized in waste treatment processes, such as wastewater treatment and waste disposal, to neutralize or remove pollutants.
Properties of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenol (Benzenol) is an organic compound appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL (0.895 M).
Homogeneous mixtures of Phenol (Benzenol) and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible.
The sodium salt of Phenol (Benzenol), sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble.
Phenol (Benzenol) is a combustible solid (NFPA rating = 2).
When heated, Phenol (Benzenol) produces flammable vapors that are explosive at concentrations of 3 to 10% in air.
Carbon dioxide or dry chemical extinguishers should be used to fight Phenol (Benzenol) fires.
Synthesis of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenol (Benzenol)s can be synthesized by the following methods.
From sulphonic acids (by alkali fusion of sodium benzene sulphonate)
The first commercial process for the synthesis of Phenol (Benzenol).
Sodium benzene sulphonate is fused with sodium hydroxide at 573K to produce sodium phenoxide, which upon acidification yields Phenol (Benzenol).
From diazonium salts (by the hydrolysis of diazonium salt – laboratory method)
Reactions of Phenol (Benzenol):
Neutral Phenol (Benzenol) substructure “shape”.
An image of a computed electrostatic surface of neutral Phenol (Benzenol) molecule, showing neutral regions in green, electronegative areas in orange-red, and the electropositive phenolic proton in blue.
Phenol (Benzenol) water phase diagram: Certain combinations of Phenol (Benzenol) and water can make two solutions in one bottle.
Phenol (Benzenol) is highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution.
The enhanced nucleophilicity is attributed to donation pi electron density from O into the ring.
Many groups can be attached to the ring, via halogenation, acylation, sulfonation, and related processes.
Phenol (Benzenol) is so strongly activated that bromination and chlorination lead readily to polysubstitution.
The reaction affords 2- and 4-substituted derivatives.
The regiochemistry of halogenation changes in strongly acidic solutions where PhOH2]+ predominates.
Phenol (Benzenol) reacts with dilute nitric acid at room temperature to give a mixture of 2-nitrophenol and 4-nitrophenol while with concentrated nitric acid, additional nitro groups are introduced, e.g. to give 2,4,6-trinitrophenol.
Friedel Crafts alkylations of Phenol (Benzenol) and its derivatives often proceed without catalysts.
Alkylating agents include alkyl halides, alkenes, and ketones.
Thus, adamantyl-1-bromide, dicyclopentadiene), and cyclohexanones give respectively 4-adamantylphenol, a bis(2-hydroxyphenyl) derivative, and a 4-cyclohexylphenols.
Alcohols and hydroperoxides alkylate phenols in the presence of solid acid catalysts (e.g. certain zeolite).
Cresols and cumyl Phenol (Benzenol) can be produced in that way.
Aqueous solutions of Phenol (Benzenol) are weakly acidic and turn blue litmus slightly to red.
Phenol (Benzenol) is neutralized by sodium hydroxide forming sodium phenate or phenolate, but being weaker than carbonic acid, Phenol (Benzenol) cannot be neutralized by sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide.
C6H5OH + NaOH → C6H5ONa + H2O
When a mixture of Phenol (Benzenol) and benzoyl chloride are shaken in presence of dilute sodium hydroxide solution, phenyl benzoate is formed.
This is an example of the Schotten–Baumann reaction:
C6H5COCl + HOC6H5 → C6H5CO2C6H5 + HCl
Phenol (Benzenol) is reduced to benzene when it is distilled with zinc dust or when its vapour is passed over granules of zinc at 400 °C:
C6H5OH + Zn → C6H6 + ZnO
When Phenol (Benzenol) is treated with diazomethane in the presence of boron trifluoride (BF3), anisole is obtained as the main product and nitrogen gas as a byproduct.
C6H5OH + CH2N2 → C6H5OCH3 + N2
Phenol (Benzenol) and its derivatives react with iron(III) chloride to give intensely colored solutions containing phenoxide complexes.
Chemical Reactions:
A hydroxyl group is attached to an aromatic ring and Phenol (Benzenol) is strongly activating ortho/para director, Phenols (Benzenol) possess considerable reactivity at their ortho and para carbons toward electrophilic aromatic substitution.
Reactions of the Aromatic Ring:
The -OH group in Phenol (Benzenol) is ortho and para directing because it increases electron density at ortho and para positions due to resonance.
Thus Phenol (Benzenol) undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions.
Halogenation:
Like -NH2 group, -OH group is so much activating that Phenol (Benzenol) is rather difficult to prevent poly substitution.
If Phenol (Benzenol) is required to arrest the reaction at the mono substitution stage, the reaction should be carried out in non-polar solvents like CCl4 and CS2 and at lower temperatures.
Natural Sources of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenol (Benzenol) is a constituent of coal tar and is formed during the decomposition of organic materials.
Increased environmental levels of Phenol (Benzenol) may result from forest fires.
Phenol (Benzenol) has been detected among the volatile components from liquid manure.
Industrial sources of Phenols (Benzenol) and other related aromatics from a petroleum refinery, petrochemicals, basic organic chemical manufacture, coal refining, pharmaceuticals, tannery and pulp, and paper mills.
Nomenclature of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenols (Benzenol) are organic compounds containing at least one -OH group directly attached to the benzene ring.
Depending upon the number of hydroxyl groups attached to the benzene ring, Phenols (Benzenol) can be classified as monohydric, dihydric and trihydric Phenols (Benzenol).
Monohydric phenols:
The simplest member of the series is hydroxybenzene, commonly known as Phenol (Benzenol), while others are named substituted phenols.
The three isomeric hydroxyl toluenes are known as cresols.
Dihydric phenols:
The three isomeric dihydroxy benzenes namely catechol, resorcinol, and quinol are better known by their common names.
Trihydric phenols:
Trihydroxy phenols are known by the common names called pyrogallol, hydroxyquinol and phloroglucinol.
Production of Phenol (Benzenol):
Because of Phenol (Benzenol)’s commercial importance, many methods have been developed for its production, but the cumene process is the dominant technology.
Cumene process:
Accounting for 95% of production (2003) is the cumene process, also called Hock process.
Phenol (Benzenol) involves the partial oxidation of cumene (isopropylbenzene) via the Hock rearrangement:
Compared to most other processes, the cumene process uses mild conditions and inexpensive raw materials.
For the process to be economical, both Phenol (Benzenol) and the acetone by-product must be in demand.
In 2010, worldwide demand for acetone was approximately 6.7 million tonnes, 83 percent of which was satisfied with acetone produced by the cumene process.
A route analogous to the cumene process begins with cyclohexylbenzene.
Phenol (Benzenol) is oxidized to a hydroperoxide, akin to the production of cumene hydroperoxide.
Via the Hock rearrangement, cyclohexylbenzene hydroperoxide cleaves to give Phenol (Benzenol) and cyclohexanone.
Cyclohexanone is an important precursor to some nylons.
Oxidation of benzene, toluene, cyclohexylbenzene:
The direct oxidation of benzene (C6H6) to Phenol (Benzenol) is theoretically possible and of great interest, but Phenol (Benzenol) has not been commercialized:
C6H6 + O → C6H5OH
Nitrous oxide is a potentially “green” oxidant that is a more potent oxidant than O2.
Routes for the generation of nitrous oxide however remain uncompetitive.
An electrosynthesis employing alternating current gives Phenol (Benzenol) from benzene.
The oxidation of toluene, involves copper-catalyzed reaction of molten sodium benzoate with air:
C6H5CH3 + 2 O2 → C6H5OH + CO2 + H2O
The reaction is proposed to proceed via formation of benzyoylsalicylate.
Autoxidation of cyclohexylbenzene give the hydroperoxide.
Decomposition of this hydroperoxide affords cyclohexanone and Phenol (Benzenol).
Older methods:
Early methods relied on extraction of Phenol (Benzenol) from coal derivatives or the hydrolysis of benzene derivatives.
Hydrolysis of benzenesulfonic acid:
The original commercial route was developed by Bayer and Monsanto in the early 1900s, based on discoveries by Wurtz and Kekule.
The method involves the reaction of strong base with benzenesulfonic acid, proceeding by the reaction of hydroxide with sodium benzenesulfonate to give sodium phenoxide.
Acidification of the latter gives Phenol (Benzenol).
The net conversion is:
C6H5SO3H + 2 NaOH → C6H5OH + Na2SO3 + H2O
Hydrolysis of chlorobenzene:
Chlorobenzene can be hydrolyzed to Phenol (Benzenol) using base or steam:
C6H5Cl + NaOH → C6H5OH + NaCl
C6H5Cl + H2O -> C6H5OH + HCl
These methods suffer from the cost of the chlorobenzene and the need to dispose of the chloride by product.
Coal pyrolysis:
Phenol (Benzenol) is also a recoverable byproduct of coal pyrolysis.
In the Lummus Process, the oxidation of toluene to benzoic acid is conducted separately.
Acidity of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenol (Benzenol) is more acidic than aliphatic alcohols.
Phenol (Benzenol)’s enhanced acidity is attributed to resonance stabilization of phenolate anion.
In this way, the negative charge on oxygen is delocalized on to the ortho and para carbon atoms through the pi system.
An alternative explanation involves the sigma framework, postulating that the dominant effect is the induction from the more electronegative sp2 hybridised carbons; the comparatively more powerful inductive withdrawal of electron density that is provided by the sp2 system compared to an sp3 system allows for great stabilization of the oxyanion.
In support of the second explanation, the pKa of the enol of acetone in water is 10.9, making it only slightly less acidic than Phenol (Benzenol) (pKa 10.0).
Thus, the greater number of resonance structures available to phenoxide compared to acetone enolate seems to contribute little to Phenol (Benzenol)’s stabilization.
However, the situation changes when solvation effects are excluded.
Hydrogen bonding:
In carbon tetrachloride and in alkane solvents, Phenol (Benzenol) hydrogen bonds with a wide range of Lewis bases such as pyridine, diethyl ether, and diethyl sulfide.
The enthalpies of adduct formation and the −OH IR frequency shifts accompanying adduct formation have been compiled.
Phenol (Benzenol) is classified as a hard acid.
Tautomerism:
Phenol (Benzenol) exhibits keto-enol tautomerism with its unstable keto tautomer cyclohexadienone, but the effect is nearly negligible.
The equilibrium constant for enolisation is approximately 10−13, which means only one in every ten trillion molecules is in the keto form at any moment.
The small amount of stabilisation gained by exchanging a C=C bond for a C=O bond is more than offset by the large destabilisation resulting from the loss of aromaticity.
Phenol (Benzenol) therefore exists essentially entirely in the enol form.
4, 4′ Substituted cyclohexadienone can undergo a dienone–phenol rearrangement in acid conditions and form stable 3,4‐disubstituted Phenol (Benzenol).
For substituted Phenol (Benzenol)s, several factors can favor the keto tautomer:
Additional hydroxy groups (see resorcinol)
Annulation as in the formation of naphthols
Deprotonation to give the phenolate.
Phenoxides are enolates stabilised by aromaticity.
Under normal circumstances, phenoxide is more reactive at the oxygen position, but the oxygen position is a “hard” nucleophile whereas the alpha-carbon positions tend to be “soft”.
History of Phenol (Benzenol):
Phenol (Benzenol) was discovered in 1834 by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge, who extracted it (in impure form) from coal tar.
Runge called Phenol (Benzenol) “Karbolsäure” (coal-oil-acid, carbolic acid).
Coal tar remained the primary source until the development of the petrochemical industry.
The French chemist Auguste Laurent extracted Phenol (Benzenol) in its pure form, as a derivative of benzene, in 1841.
In 1836, Auguste Laurent coined the name “phène” for benzene; this is the root of the word “phenol” and “phenyl”.
In 1843, French chemist Charles Gerhardt coined the name “phénol”.
The antiseptic properties of Phenol (Benzenol) were used by Sir Joseph Lister (1827–1912) in his pioneering technique of antiseptic surgery.
Lister decided that the wounds themselves had to be thoroughly cleaned.
He then covered the wounds with a piece of rag or lint covered in Phenol (Benzenol).
The skin irritation caused by continual exposure to Phenol (Benzenol) eventually led to the introduction of aseptic (germ-free) techniques in surgery.
Lister’s work was inspired by the works and experiments of his contemporary, Louis Pasteur in sterilizing various biological media.
He theorized that if germs could be killed or prevented, no infection would occur.
Lister reasoned that a chemical could be used to destroy the micro-organisms that cause infection.
Meanwhile, in Carlisle, England, officials were experimenting with sewage treatment using carbolic acid to reduce the smell of sewage cesspools.
Having heard of these developments, and having himself previously experimented with other chemicals for antiseptic purposes without much success, Lister decided to try carbolic acid as a wound antiseptic.
He had his first chance on August 12, 1865, when he received a patient: an eleven-year-old boy with a tibia bone fracture which pierced the skin of his lower leg.
Ordinarily, amputation would be the only solution.
However, Lister decided to try carbolic acid.
After setting the bone and supporting the leg with splints, he soaked clean cotton towels in undiluted carbolic acid and applied them to the wound, covered with a layer of tin foil, leaving them for four days.
When he checked the wound, Lister was pleasantly surprised to find no signs of infection, just redness near the edges of the wound from mild burning by the carbolic acid.
Reapplying fresh bandages with diluted carbolic acid, the boy was able to walk home after about six weeks of treatment.
By 16 March 1867, when the first results of Lister’s work were published in the Lancet, he had treated a total of eleven patients using his new antiseptic method.
Of those, only one had died, and that was through a complication that was nothing to do with Lister’s wound-dressing technique.
Now, for the first time, patients with compound fractures were likely to leave the hospital with all their limbs intact.
Before antiseptic operations were introduced at the hospital, there were sixteen deaths in thirty-five surgical cases.
Almost one in every two patients died.
After antiseptic surgery was introduced in the summer of 1865, there were only six deaths in forty cases.
The mortality rate had dropped from almost 50 per cent to around 15 per cent.
Phenol (Benzenol) was a remarkable achievement.
Phenol (Benzenol) was the main ingredient of the Carbolic Smoke Ball, an ineffective device marketed in London in the 19th century as protection against influenza and other ailments, and the subject of the famous law case Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company.
Second World War:
The toxic effect of Phenol (Benzenol) on the central nervous system, discussed below, causes sudden collapse and loss of consciousness in both humans and animals; a state of cramping precedes these symptoms because of the motor activity controlled by the central nervous system.
Injections of Phenol (Benzenol) were used as a means of individual execution by Nazi Germany during the Second World War.
Phenol (Benzenol) was originally used by the Nazis in 1939 as part of the mass-murder of undesirables under Aktion T4.
The Germans learned that extermination of smaller groups was more economical by injection of each victim with Phenol (Benzenol).
Phenol (Benzenol) injections were given to thousands of people.
Maximilian Kolbe was also murdered with a Phenol (Benzenol) injection after surviving two weeks of dehydration and starvation in Auschwitz when he volunteered to die in place of a stranger.
Approximately one gram is sufficient to cause death.
Occurrences:
Phenol (Benzenol) is a normal metabolic product, excreted in quantities up to 40 mg/L in human urine.
The temporal gland secretion of male elephants showed the presence of Phenol (Benzenol) and 4-methylphenol during musth.
Phenol (Benzenol) is also one of the chemical compounds found in castoreum.
Phenol (Benzenol) is ingested from the plants the beaver eats.
Occurrence in whisky:
Phenol (Benzenol) is a measurable component in the aroma and taste of the distinctive Islay scotch whisky, generally ~30 ppm, but Phenol (Benzenol) can be over 160ppm in the malted barley used to produce whisky.
This amount is different from and presumably higher than the amount in the distillate.
Biodegradation:
Cryptanaerobacter phenolicus is a bacterium species that produces benzoate from Phenol (Benzenol) via 4-hydroxybenzoate.
Rhodococcus phenolicus is a bacterium species able to degrade Phenol (Benzenol) as sole carbon source
Handling and Storage of Phenol (Benzenol):
Handling:
Handle Phenol (Benzenol) with care, using appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, goggles, and protective clothing.
Avoid direct contact with skin, eyes, and clothing.
Use in well-ventilated areas to prevent inhalation of vapors.
Avoid inhalation of dust, vapor, or mist.
Ensure containers are properly labeled and securely closed when not in use.
Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
Storage:
Store Phenol (Benzenol) in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances, such as strong oxidizing agents.
Keep containers tightly closed and sealed until ready for use.
Store away from sources of heat, sparks, and open flames.
Protect from light and moisture.
Store in a corrosion-resistant container with a resistant inner liner.
Reactivity and Stability of Phenol (Benzenol):
Stability:
Phenol (Benzenol) is stable under normal temperatures and pressures.
Phenol (Benzenol) can polymerize upon exposure to heat or strong acids and bases.
Reactivity:
Reacts with strong oxidizing agents, leading to the risk of fire or explosion.
May react violently with acetyl chloride, nitrobenzene, and aluminum chloride.
Incompatible with bases, reducing agents, and certain metals.
Decomposition Products:
When heated to decomposition, Phenol (Benzenol) emits toxic fumes of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
First Aid Measures of Phenol (Benzenol):
Inhalation:
Move the person to fresh air immediately.
If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen.
Seek medical attention immediately.
Skin Contact:
Immediately wash the affected area with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
Seek medical attention immediately, as Phenol (Benzenol) can cause severe burns and systemic toxicity.
Eye Contact:
Rinse eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting the upper and lower eyelids occasionally.
Seek immediate medical attention.
Ingestion:
Do not induce vomiting.
Rinse mouth with water and give the person plenty of water to drink.
Seek immediate medical attention, as Phenol (Benzenol) ingestion can be life-threatening.
Firefighting Measures of Phenol (Benzenol):
Suitable Extinguishing Media:
Use alcohol-resistant foam, carbon dioxide (CO2), dry chemical, or water spray to extinguish fires involving Phenol (Benzenol).
Firefighting Precautions:
Wear full protective gear, including a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Avoid inhaling combustion products, which may include toxic gases such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Specific Hazards:
Phenol (Benzenol) is combustible and can form explosive mixtures with air at elevated temperatures.
Containers may explode if exposed to fire or excessive heat.
Accidental Release Measures of Phenol (Benzenol):
Personal Precautions:
Evacuate the area and provide adequate ventilation.
Wear appropriate PPE, including gloves, goggles, and protective clothing.
Environmental Precautions:
Prevent further leakage or spillage if safe to do so.
Do not allow the product to enter drains or waterways.
Containment and Cleanup:
Absorb spills with inert materials (e.g., sand, earth) and place in suitable, closed containers for disposal.
Clean contaminated surfaces thoroughly.
Dispose of according to local, state, and federal regulations.
Exposure Controls/Personal Protection of Phenol (Benzenol):
Exposure Limits:
OSHA PEL: 5 ppm (skin)
ACGIH TLV: 5 ppm (skin)
Engineering Controls:
Use local exhaust ventilation to control airborne concentrations below exposure limits.
Ensure that eyewash stations and safety showers are readily available.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
Respiratory Protection:
Use NIOSH-approved respirators if exposure limits are exceeded or if irritation occurs.
Skin Protection:
Wear chemical-resistant gloves, long sleeves, and pants to prevent skin contact.
Eye Protection:
Wear chemical safety goggles or face shields.
Hygiene Measures:
Wash hands thoroughly after handling and before eating or drinking.
Avoid eating, drinking, or smoking in areas where Phenol (Benzenol) is handled or stored.
Identifiers of Phenol (Benzenol):
CAS No: 108-95-2
Molecular Formula: C6H5OH or C6H6O
Molecular Weight: 94.11
CAS Number: 108-95-2
EC Number: 203-632-7
Molecular Formula: C₆H₅OH
Molar Mass: 94.11 g/mol
IUPAC Name: Phenol
Synonyms: Benzenol, Carbolic Acid, Hydroxybenzene, Phenylic Acid
UN Number: 1671 (for phenol, molten)
Chemical Structure: A benzene ring with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to it.
Molecular Formula: C6H6O
Molecular Weight: 94.11 g/mol
Appearance: Colorless to light pink crystalline solid
Odor: Sweet, medicinal, or phenolic odor
Melting Point: 40.9°C (105.6°F)
Boiling Point: 181.7°C (359.1°F)
Density: 1.07 g/cm3
Solubility: Soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and many organic solvents
Chemical formula: C6H6O
Molar mass: 94.113 g/mol
Appearance: Transparent crystalline solid
Odor: Sweet and tarry
Density: 1.07 g/cm3
Properties of Phenol (Benzenol):
Melting point: 40.5 °C (104.9 °F; 313.6 K)
Boiling point: 181.7 °C (359.1 °F; 454.8 K)
Solubility in water: 8.3 g/100 mL (20 °C)
log P: 1.48
Vapor pressure: 0.4 mmHg (20 °C)
Acidity (pKa):
9.95 (in water),
18.0 (in DMSO),
29.1 (in acetonitrile)
Conjugate base: Phenoxide
Molecular Weight/ Molar Mass: 94.11 g/mol
Density: 1.07 g/cm³
Melting Point: 40.5 °C
Boiling Point: 181.7 °C
Molecular Weight: 94.11
XLogP3: 1.5
Hydrogen Bond Donor Count: 1
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count: 1
Rotatable Bond Count: 0
Exact Mass: 94.041864811
Monoisotopic Mass: 94.041864811
Topological Polar Surface Area: 20.2 Ų
Heavy Atom Count: 7
Formal Charge: 0
Complexity: 46.1
Isotope Atom Count: 0
Defined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Defined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Covalently-Bonded Unit Count: 1
Compound Is Canonicalized: Yes
Boiling Point: 181.8°C
Melting Point: 40.9°C
Vapour Pressure: 0.36 mm Hg at 20°C
Flash Point: 78.9°C
Specifications of Phenol (Benzenol):
Appearance: Colorless to light pink solid or liquid (depending on temperature).
Odor: Strong, distinctive phenolic odor.
Purity: Typically ≥ 99% (by GC or HPLC).
Melting Point: 40.5°C (104.9°F).
Boiling Point: 181.7°C (359.1°F).
Density: 1.07 g/cm³ at 20°C.
Water Content: Typically ≤ 0.1% (Karl Fischer method).
pH (1% Solution): Approximately 6-7.
Color (APHA): Typically ≤ 10 (on the APHA scale).
Refractive Index: Approximately 1.548 (at 20°C).
Flash Point: 79°C (174°F).
Autoignition Temperature: 490°C (914°F).
Vapor Pressure: 0.7 mmHg at 20°C.
Vapor Density: 3.2 (air = 1).
Solubility: Miscible in water and many organic solvents (e.g., ethanol, ether).